The European Starling, an introduced species to North America, has established a widespread presence, thriving in environments shared with humans. These adaptable birds are commonly found in mowed lawns, urban streets, and agricultural fields, utilizing trees, buildings, and other structures for nesting. Their primary needs include open, grassy areas for foraging, a reliable water source, and suitable cavities or niches for nesting. While they avoid dense forests and deserts, their adaptability allows them to flourish in a variety of human-altered landscapes.
Habitat
European Starlings are intrinsically linked to human settlements. Their preferred habitats are characterized by open, grassy expanses for feeding and access to nesting sites, often found in urban and suburban areas. They are frequently observed in proximity to human activity, utilizing the resources available in these modified environments.
Diet
Starlings exhibit a remarkably varied diet, consuming almost anything available. Their primary food source consists of insects and other invertebrates. They are known to prey on grasshoppers, beetles, flies, caterpillars, snails, earthworms, millipedes, and spiders. Beyond insects, their diet includes a wide range of fruits such as cherries, holly berries, mulberries, and blackberries. They also supplement their diet with grains, seeds, nectar, livestock feed, and even garbage, showcasing their opportunistic feeding habits.
Nesting Behavior
Nest Placement and Description
The European Starling’s nesting strategy involves males selecting and defending nest sites to attract females. Nests are almost exclusively built within cavities, commonly found in buildings, old woodpecker holes, or nest boxes. They may also utilize burrows and cliff niches. Nest holes are typically situated between 10 and 25 feet above the ground, though some can be as high as 60 feet.
Males initiate nest construction before mating, filling the cavity with a mixture of grass, pine needles, feathers, trash, cloth, and string. A central depression is fashioned to hold the cup-shaped nest, which is then lined with feathers, fine bark, leaves, and grass. Females often oversee the final nest arrangements, sometimes removing materials added by the male. A unique behavior observed throughout the nesting period, especially during egg-laying and incubation, is the addition of fresh green plants to the nest by both sexes. Nests can be constructed in a remarkably short period, often within 1-3 days.
Nesting Facts
| Clutch Size: | 3-6 eggs |
|---|---|
| Number of Broods: | 1-2 broods |
| Egg Length: | 1.1-1.3 in (2.7-3.2 cm) |
| Egg Width: | 0.8-0.9 in (1.9-2.3 cm) |
| Incubation Period: | 12 days |
| Nestling Period: | 21-23 days |
| Egg Description: | Bluish or greenish white. |
| Condition at Hatching: | Helpless, with sparse grayish down. Newly hatched starlings weigh about 6.4 grams. The eyes stay closed for 6-7 days. |
Behavior and Social Interactions
European Starlings are often observed foraging in open areas with short vegetation, such as lawns and fields. They move rapidly across the ground, using their bills to probe the soil. By opening their bills forcefully, they excavate and search for soil-dwelling insects and other invertebrates. These gregarious birds frequently associate with other species, including grackles, cowbirds, blackbirds, House Sparrows, Rock Pigeons, American Robins, and American Crows.
Their social interactions are complex and involve various signals. Starlings may signal agitation by flicking their wings or by staring intently at opponents while adopting an erect posture, fluffing their feathers, and raising the feathers on their head. Submissive birds tend to crouch and move away with their feathers sleeked. Aggressive encounters can escalate to chasing and jabbing with their bills. When perched on wires, they may displace each other by sidling along the perch until space runs out.
Males actively attract mates by singing near a claimed nest site and simultaneously flapping their wings in circular motions. After pairing, males remain highly attentive to their mates, actively chasing off other males. European Starlings are known for their aggressive nature, often driving other bird species away from desirable nest sites. This includes species such as Wood Ducks, Buffleheads, Northern Flickers, Great Crested Flycatchers, Tree Swallows, and Eastern Bluebirds.
Conservation Status
While European Starlings are common and widespread, their population in North America has experienced a decline. According to the North American Breeding Bird Survey, their population has decreased by over 1.2% annually, resulting in a cumulative decline of approximately 50% between 1966 and 2023. Partners in Flight estimates the global breeding population at 250 million. A 2019 study indicated that the number of European Starlings in the U.S. and Canada was around 93 million.
As a successful introduced species, European Starlings are fierce competitors for nesting cavities, often displacing native birds. Despite concerns about their impact on native bird populations, a 2003 study found limited effects on most native species. Only sapsuckers showed significant population declines attributed to European Starlings, while other native birds appeared to maintain their populations despite the presence of this introduced species.
References
Cabe, Paul R. (1993). European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA.
Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye (1988). The Birder’s Handbook. A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds, Including All Species That Regularly Breed North of Mexico. Simon and Schuster Inc., New York, NY, USA.
Kalmbach, E. R., and I. N. Gabrielson. (1921). Economic value of the starling in the United States. United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 868, Washington, D.C.
Koenig, W. D. (2003). European Starlings and their effect on native cavity-nesting birds. Conservation Biology 17:1134–1140.
Lutmerding, J. A. and A. S. Love. (2020). Longevity records of North American birds. Version 2020. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Bird Banding Laboratory 2020.
Partners in Flight. (2020). Avian Conservation Assessment Database, version 2020.
Rosenberg, K. V., A. M. Dokter, P. J. Blancher, J. R. Sauer, A. C. Smith, P. A. Smith, J. C. Stanton, A. Panjabi, L. Helft, M. Parr and P. P. Marra. Decline of North American Avifauna. Science 366:120-124
Sauer, J. R., D. K. Niven, J. E. Hines, D. J. Ziolkowski Jr., K. L. Pardieck, J. E. Fallon, and W. A. Link (2019). The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966–2019. Version 2.07.2019. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD, USA.
Sibley, D. A. (2014). The Sibley Guide to Birds, second edition. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY, USA.
